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Direct and Representative democracy

Thu, 14 Jan 2010 14:22:52 +0100

Direct and Representative democracy

Direct democracy, classically termed pure democracy, comprises a form of democracy and theory of civics wherein sovereignty is lodged in the assembly of all citizens who choose to participate. Depending on the particular system, this assembly might pass executive motions, make laws, elect or dismiss officials, and conduct trials. Direct democracy stands in contrast to representative democracy, where sovereignty is exercised by a subset of the people, usually on the basis of election. Deliberative democracy incorporates elements of both direct democracy and representative democracy.

    Many countries that are representative democracies allow for three forms of political action that provide limited direct democracy: initiative, referendum (plebiscite) and recall. Referenda can include the ability to hold a binding referendum on whether a given law should be rejected. This effectively grants the populace which holds suffrage a veto on government legislation. Initiatives, usually put forward by the populace, force the consideration of laws or amendments (usually by a subsequent referendum), without the consent of the elected officials, or even in opposition to the will of said officials. Recalls give people the right to remove elected officials from office before the end of their term, although this is very rare in modern democracies.

                         History of democracy

    The first recorded democracy, which was also direct, is said to be the Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC, although due to the basic fact that women and slaves were not allowed to take part in it, it may be argued that it was not a true democracy. The main bodies in the Athenian democracy were the assembly, composed by male citizens, the boule which was composed by 500 citizens chosen annually by lot, and the law courts composed by a massive number of juries chosen by lot, with no judges. Out of the male population of 30,000, several thousand citizens were politically active every year and many of them quite regularly for years on end. The Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and law courts controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business.



     Modern democracies do not use institutions that resemble the Athenian system of rule.

Also relevant is the history of Roman republic beginning circa 449 BC (Cary, 1967). The ancient Roman Republic's "citizen lawmaking"—citizen formulation and passage of law, as well as citizen veto of legislature-made law—began about 449 BC and lasted the approximately four hundred years to the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Many historians mark the end of the Republic on the passage of a law named the Lex Titia, 27 November 43 BC (Cary, 1967).

Modern-era citizen lawmaking began in the towns of Switzerland in the 13th century. In 1847, the Swiss added the "statute referendum" to their national constitution. They soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliament's laws was not enough. In 1891, they added the "constitutional amendment initiative". The Swiss political battles since 1891 have given the world a valuable experience base with the national-level constitutional amendment initiative (Kobach, 1993). In the past 120 years more than 240 initiatives have been put to referendum. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. (See Direct democracy in Switzerland below.) Another example is the United States, where, despite being a federal republic where no direct democracy exists at the federal level, almost half the states (and many localities) provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called "ballot measures" or "ballot questions") and the vast majority of the states have either initiatives and/or referendums. (See Direct democracy in the United States below.)

Some of the issues surrounding the related notion of a direct democracy using the Internet and other communications technologies are dealt with in e-democracy. More concisely, the concept of open source governance applies principles of the free software movement to the governance of people, allowing the entire populace to participate in government directly, as much or as little as they please. This development strains the traditional concept of democracy, because it does not give equal representation to each person. Some implementations may even be considered democratically-inspired meritocracies, where contributors to the code of laws are given preference based on their ranking by other contributors.

The Magnetic

Thu, 14 Jan 2010 13:29:46 +0100

Magnetic

magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials like iron and attracts or repels other magnets.

    A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some rare earth metals and some of their alloys (e.g., Alnico), and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism.

Some ferromagnetic materials can be magnetised by a magnetic field but do not tend to remain magnetised when the field is removed; these are termed soft. Permanent magnets are made from magnetically hard ferromagnetic materials that stay magnetized.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it, but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often an electromagnet is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment, while the local strength of the magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.

Magnetic field

1.Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle.

2.Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction.

Origin

A lodestone or loadstone is a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite. They are permanent and naturally occurring magnets, that attract pieces of iron. Ancient people first discovered the property of magnetism in lodestone. Pieces of lodestone, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses.

The process by which lodestone is created has long been an open question in geology. Only a small amount of the magnetite on Earth is found magnetized as lodestone. Ordinary magnetite is attracted to a magnetic field like iron and steel is, but does not tend to become magnetized itself. Recent research has found that only a variety of magnetite with a particular crystalline structure, a mixture of magnetite and maghemite, has sufficient coercivity to be magnetized and become a permanent magnet. One theory suggests that lodestones are magnetized by the strong magnetic fields surrounding lightning bolts. This is supported by the observation that they are mostly found at the surface of the Earth not buried at great depth.

Magnetic Field of the Earth

The Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a bar magnet tilted 11 degrees from the spin axis of the Earth. The problem with that picture is that the Curie temperature of iron is about 770 C . The Earth's core is hotter than that and therefore not magnetic. So how did the Earth get its magnetic field ?

Magnetic fields surround electric currents, so we surmise that circulating electic currents in the Earth's molten metalic core are the origin of the magnetic field. A current loop gives a field similar to that of the earth. The magnetic field magnitude measured at the surface of the Earth is about half a Gauss and dips toward the Earth in the northern hemisphere. The magnitude varies over the surface of the Earth in the range 0.3 to 0.6 Gauss.

The Earth's magnetic field is attributed to a dynamo effect of circulating electric current, but it is not constant in direction. Rock specimens of different age in similar locations have different directions of permanent magnetization. Evidence for 171 magnetic field reversals during the past million years has been reported.

Although the details of the dynamo effect are not known in detail, the rotation of the Earth plays a part in generating the currents which are presumed to be the source of the magnetic field. Mariner 2 found that Venus does not have such a magnetic field although its core iron content must be similar to that of the Earth. Venus's rotation period of 243 Earth days is just too slow to produce the dynamo effect.

      Interaction of the terrestrial magnetic field with particles from the solar wind sets up the conditions for the aurora phenomena near the poles.

The north pole of a compass needle is a magnetic north pole. It is attracted to the geographic North Pole, which is a magnetic south pole (opposite magnetic poles attract).

How to create website

Tue, 12 Jan 2010 08:29:51 +0100

How to create website

A website (also spelled web site) is a collection of related web pages, images, videos or other digital assets that are addressed with a common domain name or IP address in an Internet Protocol-based network. A web site is hosted on at least one web server, accessible via a network such as the Internet or a private local area network.

A web page is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). A web page may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup anchors.

Step 1: Reserve Your Domain Name

You cannot create a website without owning a domain name. It is the address and foundation of any website.

Here are some more tips on choosing the best domain name:

1) Don't register domain names that are too long and have too many syllables if you can help it. Yes, you can register names up to 63 characters long, but that doesn't mean you have to use all 63 characters.

You want your name to be easy to remember. Not everyone will bookmark your page initially so try to think of something that can be easily remembered -- although I realize this may be tricky since a lot of names are taken these days.

2) Use hyphens if your name is more than 3 words long (unless your name includes 3 short words). A name like carbuying.com doesn't really need a hyphen because it's readable the way it is.

However a name like used-car-buying-scams.com looks better than usedcarbuyingscams.com since there are so many words in the name.

3) Protect your name by registering multiple extensions (.net, .org, etc.) This deters people from copying your name.

Step 2: Select a Web Hosting Solution

After you've registered your domain name, you need to select a company to host your site so you can create your web pages. Read this article to find out how to choose the option that's best for you.

at the 2nd step to creating a web site. After you have selected and registered your domain name you're ready to choose a web host.A web host provides you with the space, tools and support to create your web pages and email accounts (you@yourdomain.com).

This is where all the action happens, so please read this page carefully to ensure that you choose the most appropriate option for your site.

Step 3: Create Your Web Pages

You can either learn HTML, use an HTML editor or use the free website tools provided by your web hosting company. If so, you may not care to learn HTML to create your pages. There are web hosts out there that provide user-friendly web site creation software so all you have to do is point and click your mouse to create your web pages.

Free Web Site Tutorials
Download some free tutorials that will aid you in creating your website.

Need Help Choosing a Topic?
Before you dive into the world of website creation, you may want to read this article about choosing the right topic.

Need to Create a Church Web Site?
Try using Church WebBuilder Pro to get your church website online quickly and easily.

Why I Created This Website

I started this website for my friends and family because I was tired of seeing them get ripped off when they were creating a web site

Creating a website is just the first step to having a successful website. I will also show you add-ons you can put on your website like newsletters and counters for free or cheap, ways you can make money from your website and how to get traffic to it.

A Memorable year

Thu, 14 Jan 2010 13:36:34 +0100

                                                          A Memorable year

      Two years ago I had a very memorable year. There were many things that were difficult and terrible problems . First . I fell in Mathmatics in the exams and my grade also fell I got 2.5 .So I was punnished by my father because I didn't do well in my grades it made me unhappy a lot .then two urgy dogs bit me while  I walking on the street to throw th rubbish into the rubbish bin . they hurt me a lot . After taht my heart was broken , my girl friend left me and she didn't care about my heart . lastly my scorpion died so I don't  know Why I hought it got hot or old. that I'm not sure Why ?
But many good things happened to me too that year I made a lot of new friend . There were fifteen people . they had the same dream as me and wanted to be a Judge ,they were Clever and very funny . My love my girl friend came back to me I didn't want to be angry I just said ''Ok'' .If she   came back . Our love is stronger and sweeter I'm very happy .After that my grades were better and I became interested in mathmatics. the one thing that I feel proud of is I passed grade 10 and became grade 9 in the piano lessons and I played the piano exllent on stage .It made me very happy.

English as a national foreing lanquges in India

Thu, 14 Jan 2010 13:42:22 +0100

                             English as a national foreing lanquges in India

      Indiahas two national languaes for central administrative purposes Hindi and English . HIdi is the national, taht official and main link language of India English is an associat official language. The India constitution also officially approves twenty-two regional languages for official purposes.
      Hindi is used for communication in India . the homeland of Hindi is mainly in the north of India,but it is spoken and widely understood in allcenters of India.
      In India English serves two purpose .Frist ,it provides a linguistic tool for the administrative cohesiveness of country, causingpeople who speak different languges to become united. Secondly, it serves as a language of wider communication, including a large variety of different peoplecovering a vast area.

The human heart

Thu, 14 Jan 2010 13:27:06 +0100

The Human Heart

The heart is one of the most important organs in the entire human body. It is really nothing more than a pump, composed of muscle which pumps blood throughout the body, beating approximately 72 times per minute of our lives. The heart pumps the blood, which carries all the vital materials which help our bodies function and removes the waste products that we do not need. For example, the brain requires oxygen and glucose, which, if not received continuously, will cause it to loose consciousness. Muscles need oxygen, glucose and amino acids, as well as the proper ratio of sodium, calcium and potassium salts in order to contract normally. The glands need sufficient supplies of raw materials from which to manufacture the specific secretions. If the heart ever ceases to pump blood the body begins to shut down and after a very short period of time will die.

      The heart is essentially a muscle (a little larger than the fist). Like any other muscle in the human body, it contracts and expands. Unlike skeletal muscles, however, the heart works on the "All -or-Nothing Law". That is, each time the heart contracts it does so with all its force. In skeletal muscles, the principle of "gradation" is present. The pumping of the heart is called the Cardiac Cycle, which occurs about 72 times per minute. This means that each cycle lasts about eight-tenths of a second. During this cycle the entire heart actually rests for about four-tenths of a second.

Make-up of the Heart.

The walls of the heart are made up of three layers, while the cavity is divided into four parts. There are two upper chambers, called the right and left atria, and two lower chambers, called the right and left ventricles. The Right Atrium, as it is called, receives blood from the upper and lower body through the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava, respectively, and from the heart muscle itself through the coronary sinus. The right atrium is the larger of the two atria, having very thin walls. The right atrium opens into the right ventricle through the right atrioventicular valve(tricuspid), which only allows the blood to flow from the atria into the ventricle, but not in the reverse direction. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs to be reoxygenated. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs via the four pulmonary veins. It is smaller than the right atrium, but has thicker walls. The valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle, the left atrioventicular valve(bicuspid), is smaller than the tricuspid. It opens into the left ventricle and again is a one way valve. The left ventricle pumps the blood throughout the body. It is the Aorta, the largest artery in the body, which originates from the left ventricle.

The Heart works as a pump moving blood around in our bodies to nourish every cell. Used blood, that is blood that has already been to the cells and has given up its nutrients to them, is drawn from the body by the right half of the heart, and then sent to the lungs to be reoxygenated. Blood that has been reoxygenated by the lungs is drawn into the left side of the heart and then pumped into the blood stream. It is the atria that draw the blood from the lungs and body, and the ventricles that pump it to the lungs and body. The output of each ventricle per beat is about 70 ml, or about 2 tablespoons. In a trained athlete this amount is about double. With the average heart rate of 72 beats per minute the heart will pump about 5 litres per ventricle, or about 10 litres total per minute. This is called the cardiac output. In a trained athlete the total cardiac output is about 20 litres. If we multiply the normal, non-athlete output by the average age of 70 years, we see that the cardiac output of the average human heart over a life time would be about 1 million litres, or about 250,000 gallons